Immunotherapy, also called biological therapy, biotherapy or biological response modifying therapy (BRM therapy), is a set of treatment techniques that boost the body’s natural defences-the immune system to fight cancer and certain infections. Some immunotherapy treatments boost the immune system overall, while others try to teach it to attack specific types of cells found in tumours. Treatments include the administration of vaccines, creams, tablets and the use of monoclonal antibodies (these are a type of protein that can attach to cancer cells in the body).
Immunotherapy is used to strengthen the immune system to help it fight cancer and side effects of cancer treatments. It can also be used to combat allergies. Allergy shots, also known as subcutaneous immunotherapy can alter the immune system and prevent the development of new allergies.
Treatment uses substances produced by living organisms or substances made in a laboratory. It can be administered in several ways:
This can depend on a number of factors, including:
Breast cancer is a form of cancer that develops in the cells of the breasts, mainly in women but men can also be affected. It is the most common type of cancer in the UK, with approximately one in eight women diagnosed with breast cancer during their lifetime, and around one in 870 men develop it. Although it is the most common form of cancer, the recovery rate is high if the cancer is discovered early.
The most notable symptom of breast cancer is the formation of a lump anywhere in the breast area from below the armpits to the centre of the chest. It may appear as a physical lump, or the thickening of breast tissue.
Other symptoms include changes in the size or shape of the breasts, dimpling of the skin of the armpits, a rash around the nipples, discharge from the nipples, or a sunken area in either of the breasts.
The causes of breast cancer are not known, however it is understood that there are certain factors that can cause an increase in the risk of developing breast cancer.
People more at risk of breast cancer include:
Cancer can develop in different parts of the breast and in different ways.
The most common types of breast cancer are:
It is important to detect breast cancer early, as early detection means that it can be treated more effectively before it is able to spread.
Treatment usually consists of three components: surgery to remove part or all of the breast tissue where the cancer is located, known as either a mastectomy to remove the complete breast, or a lumpectomy to remove the lump. Chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy to kill any remaining cancerous cells follows, along with the possibility of hormone or biological treatments.
To make an appointment with a breast cancer specialist, click here.
Prostate cancer is the type of cancer that starts in the prostate gland. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system and is an organ that surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine out of the body. The prostate is responsible for producing seminal fluid.
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men, with 1 in 8 men affected. Every year, 11,000 men die from prostate cancer.
Prostate cancer can be categorised into four stages, indicating how far the cancer has spread:
Prostate cancer often does not present any symptoms at first. The symptoms that occur when the cancer starts to progress include:
If the cancer spreads to the lymph node or pelvic bone, symptoms can include:
The exact cause of prostate cancer is unknown. Your risk of getting prostate cancer depends on:
Prostate cancer diagnosis consists of several stages. At first, the doctor will assess your likelihood of having prostate cancer by taking a urine sample, testing your blood for prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and examining your prostate. If they conclude you may have a high risk of prostate cancer, they will refer you for further tests. This can include:
Treatment options depend on the stage of the cancer and the state of health of the patient.
For slow-growing cancer that is contained within the prostate cancer, the doctor may suggest a wait and see approach, where the prostate is regularly monitored but treatment delayed until necessary.
If the cancer requires treatment but has not spread outside the prostate gland, the most common treatments are:
If the cancer has spread beyond the prostate, the first line of treatment is hormone therapy. If this is not effective, chemotherapy or immunotherapy may be recommended.
Kidney cancer, sometimes referred to as renal cancer, is a type of cancer affecting the kidneys which most commonly occurs in those over the age of 60. It is one of the commonest cancers in the UK. There are different types of kidney cancer:
Kidney cancers are graded on a scale of 1-4, as are many types of cancer. Cancers which are low on the scale grow slowly, while cancers on the higher end of the scale spread more quickly. This grading system helps the doctor decide on treatment and assess how the cancer will behave.
The symptoms of kidney cancer are often difficult to detect at first, and kidney cancer is more often picked up during other routine testing. The main symptoms of kidney cancer are:
The most frequent risk factors that influence the development of kidney cancer are:
Reducing some risk factors can help in the prevention of kidney cancer, such as:
Kidney cancer, if detected early, can be cured. Treatment and outlook of kidney cancer depends on the size of the tumour and how far it has spread in the body.
The cancer cells can also be treated through freezing or heating (cryotherapy, radiofrequency ablation), embolisation (where the blood supply to the tumour is cut off), radiotherapy, or biological therapies such as immunotherapy.
If the cancer is limited to the kidney and is still fairly small, surgery can cure it. If, on the other hand, the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, treatment focusses on controlling it and preventing further spread.
Bladder cancer is a relatively common type of cancer, which involves the growth of abnormal tissue (a tumour) in the bladder tissue. There are two types:
Bladder cancer can cause the following symptoms:
In some more advanced cancers, the patient may also experience:
If you are experiencing urinary symptoms, you should consult your doctor or a specialist.
It isn’t always clear what causes cancer, but the following factors, among others, are thought to increase the risk of bladder tumours:
There is no guaranteed way to prevent cancer, but taking precautions such as not smoking, avoiding exposure to chemicals and radiation, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can help to reduce the chances that bladder cancer will develop.
Once diagnosed, bladder cancer is treated by a multidisciplinary team, which may include a urologist, a pathologist, a clinical oncologist, and a radiologist, among others.
Depending on the stage of the cancer and the risk it poses to the patient, one or more of the following treatments may be recommended, although each case is different:
Testicular cancer occurs when cancer cells form in the testes, which are the oval-shaped glands that produce sperm and the hormone testosterone in men between 15 and 35 years old. Testicular cancer can occur in one or both testes, and is more common in those who experience an abnormal testicular development or an undescended testicle.
There are two main types of testicular cancer: seminoma, and non-seminoma, of which there are further sub-groupings.
The symptoms of testicular cancer are:
Certain factors may increase the individual risk of testicular cancer. You are more likely to develop testicular cancer if a family member has had it. Certain conditions such as an undescended testicle also increase the risk.
Testicular cancer more commonly affects men over the age of 54, and Caucasian men. Testicular cancer is much more prevalent in Europe, Canada and the US than in Asia and Africa.
As the exact causes are still unknown, there is no way to prevent testicular cancer. However, it has been shown that orchidopexy, surgery to lower and fix the testicle not descended into the scrotum, can prevent the development of testicular cancer in children with undescended testicles.
This type of cancer has a cure rate of more than 90% if it is localised and treated in time. There are several treatments that are chosen depending on the stage in which the tumour is identified. At an early stage, the tumour generally only affects the testicle, so surgery to remove it is usually sufficient in most cases, although in others, treatment with chemo or radiotherapy may be needed to reduce the risk of it developing further. If the cancer has spread outside the testicle, then generally radiotherapy or chemotherapy is presented as an option. If the cancer returns, then radiotherapy or chemotherapy may again be administered.
Dr Mark Tuthill is an experienced consultant medical oncologist and an expert in the use of immunotherapy in cancer treatment. Practicing at the Manor Hospital and GenesisCare in Oxford, Dr Tuthill specialises in the treatment of early and recurrent cancer including breast cancer, prostate cancer,kidney cancer, bladder cancer and testicular cancer. Treatment is personalised to each patient's needs and preferences and can include the use of chemotherapy, hormone therapy, immunotherapy, or cancer growth inhibitors.
Dr Tuthill originally qualified from University College London, and trained in Medical Oncology in London at the Royal Marsden, Hammersmith, Charing Cross, and the Chelsea and Westminster Hospitals. In 2015 he was appointed Consultant Medical Oncologist at Churchill Hospital, Oxford, where he acts as principal investigator on a number of clinical trials.
Dr Tuthill’s research interests include tumour immunology, cancer-growth inhibitors, and novel therapeutic drug combinations for the treatment of cancer. He is a principal investigator or sub-investigator for early and late phase clinical trials in tumour types including breast cancer, urological cancers and other tumour types. Dr Tuthill holds a PhD in Tumour Immunology from Imperial College London and regularly presents his research at national and international conferences. He is a clinical ambassador for UCARE (Urology Cancer Research and Education), an independent charity raising funds for research into prostate and bladder cancer, and is a member of The Association of Cancer Physicians.
Dr Tuthill has a medico-legal practice supported by a dedicated a highly professional medico-legal administrative team and medico-legal analysts. He writes clear concise reports to time and client satisfaction.
Bladder cancer is a relatively common type of cancer, which involves the growth of abnormal tissue (a tumour) in the bladder tissue. There are two types:
Bladder cancer can cause the following symptoms:
In some more advanced cancers, the patient may also experience:
If you are experiencing urinary symptoms, you should consult your doctor or a specialist.
It isn’t always clear what causes cancer, but the following factors, among others, are thought to increase the risk of bladder tumours:
There is no guaranteed way to prevent cancer, but taking precautions such as not smoking, avoiding exposure to chemicals and radiation, and maintaining a healthy lifestyle can help to reduce the chances that bladder cancer will develop.
Once diagnosed, bladder cancer is treated by a multidisciplinary team, which may include a urologist, a pathologist, a clinical oncologist, and a radiologist, among others.
Depending on the stage of the cancer and the risk it poses to the patient, one or more of the following treatments may be recommended, although each case is different:
Metastasis is a process wherein cancer spreads from one part of the body to the other, affecting one or more organs. In bone metastasis, the cancer spreads from the original cancer site to the bones. This process does not result in bone cancer, which is where the cancer originates in the bone. If the cancer starts in the breast, and metastises to the bone, then it is called metastatic breast cancer.
Cancer can spread from the primary cancer site to other areas of the body through the lymphatic system or through the bloodstream. Bones are a fertile area for tumour growth as they have a constant cell turnover, and cancer cells attach better to bones, though doctors are currently unsure as to why.
Cancer types which are most likely to spread to the bone include breast, prostate, lung, kidney, and thyroid cancer.
Bone metastases can cause bone to either form or be destroyed, or in some cases, both. Symptoms of metastasis in the bone include broken bones, as the bones weaken, pain felt in the bones, and symptoms related to excess of calcium (feeling very thirsty, nausea, loss of appetite) which is released into the bloodstream as the bone is destroyed.
Once cancer has started spreading, it is difficult to then control it and treat it. Bone metastases, in most cases, cannot be cured or reversed.
Treatment for bone metastases largely focusses on relieving symptoms and improving quality of life. Options include bone strengthening, surgery to repair bone damage, medication to reduce damage to the bone, and trying to treat the tumour itself through procedures such as ablation or MRI-guided ultrasound.
The primary cancer, if not treated already, must be treated, usually through chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or hormone therapy.
The risk of bone metastases developing depends on many factors, such as the type of primary cancer developed and the age the patient develops the cancer. It is important to note that the risk is relatively small. It is not yet possible to entirely prevent metastasis.
Bone metastases is often treated by a multidisciplinary team as different specialties are involved in different areas of the treatment – e.g if surgery is necessary, a surgeon will be involved in treatment, or a radiologist for ultrasound-guided procedures. However, the doctor who assesses, diagnoses and treats cancer is an oncologist.
Breast cancer is a form of cancer that develops in the cells of the breasts, mainly in women but men can also be affected. It is the most common type of cancer in the UK, with approximately one in eight women diagnosed with breast cancer during their lifetime, and around one in 870 men develop it. Although it is the most common form of cancer, the recovery rate is high if the cancer is discovered early.
The most notable symptom of breast cancer is the formation of a lump anywhere in the breast area from below the armpits to the centre of the chest. It may appear as a physical lump, or the thickening of breast tissue.
Other symptoms include changes in the size or shape of the breasts, dimpling of the skin of the armpits, a rash around the nipples, discharge from the nipples, or a sunken area in either of the breasts.
The causes of breast cancer are not known, however it is understood that there are certain factors that can cause an increase in the risk of developing breast cancer.
People more at risk of breast cancer include:
Cancer can develop in different parts of the breast and in different ways.
The most common types of breast cancer are:
It is important to detect breast cancer early, as early detection means that it can be treated more effectively before it is able to spread.
Treatment usually consists of three components: surgery to remove part or all of the breast tissue where the cancer is located, known as either a mastectomy to remove the complete breast, or a lumpectomy to remove the lump. Chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy to kill any remaining cancerous cells follows, along with the possibility of hormone or biological treatments.
To make an appointment with a breast cancer specialist, click here.
Breast cancer has various surgical treatment options and all are best done when the cancer is in its early stage. The surgery depends on the size, location and extent of the tumour(s).
Cancer can occur in almost any organ, and is when abnormal cells grow and spread to other parts of the body.
Chemotherapy is a treatment that uses chemical substances that are administered intravenously or orally to get rid of cancerous cells.
It is very common to combine the treatment with other kinds of chemotherapy to fight the disease from all angles.
Chemotherapy is used for different reasons, including to:
Chemotherapy is used to treat different types of cancer. There are different kinds of chemotherapy, each used depending on what needs to be treated and often in combination with other treatments, for example:
The most important thing is for the specialist to let the patient know what the treatment will involve, how long it is expected to last (approximately), and when it will begin. This way the patient will be able to prepare for it and adapt their routines as necessary.
It is also very important for the patient to be well nourished and avoid certain medications during treatment as these may have a negative effect.
Chemotherapy can be very effective but it leaves the body more vulnerable and can have some side effects such as; dizziness, nausea, and fatigue. Patients are recommended to follow the following guidelines:
In most cases, chemotherapy is used alongside other treatments. It is done to try and get the best result for the patient. Some of the most common include:
Chemotherapy may lead to potential side-effects concerning the mouth, intestine, skin, hair and bone marrow. These side-effects do not affect everyone as they depend on which drug was used for the treatment of the cancer, thus varying with each individual case.
Generally, these side effects regard those tissues with a rapid cellular replacement rate (hair follicles, mucosa and blood). The doctor will determine what chemotherapy treatment is the best option for you, trying to prevent potential side-effects as much as possible.
The main side effects of chemotherapy are:
The chest cavity is an enclosed space which houses several major organs, including the heart, lungs, and oesophagus. The chest wall is made up of the ribcage and diaphragm, the structures of which are flexible enough to move inwards and outwards to permit breathing, while being strong enough to protect the organs inside.
Like any part of the body, the chest wall can develop tumours – abnormal growths of cells. Tumours can be benign or malignant (cancerous). Benign tumours are relatively common and may not require treatment, unless they are causing pain or trouble breathing. There are three main varieties:
Cancerous chest wall tumours are fairly rare. They are usually sarcomas formed from bone cartilage or soft tissue in the chest wall.
While benign chest wall tumours are rarely serious, the small percentage of malignant tumours can be fatal if left untreated. Although the vast majority are benign and painless, you should see your doctor immediately if you experience any symptoms of chest wall tumours.
Chest wall tumours can cause the following symptoms:
Physical signs such as lumps may be discovered by chance while showering, for example.
Several diagnostic tests can be used to locate and assess chest wall tumours in order to plan treatment:
The precise causes of chest wall tumours are not fully understood. However, it is believed that genetics play a role, as they seem to run in families, while diet and lifestyle choices are also thought to be factors.
Benign chest wall tumours may require no treatment, although sometimes it is impossible to know if it is benign or malignant without removing it. Sometimes benign tumours must be excised because they are interfering with organ function (such as breathing), causing muscle atrophy, or hampering movement.
Cancerous chest wall tumours may be treated with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, or a combination of the three. Often, a section of the ribcage must be removed, and reconstructive surgery must be implemented, using soft tissue replacement and/or prosthetics to restore the patient’s chest to a normal appearance.
Cardiothoracic surgeons are responsible for any kind of chest surgery, while oncologists specialise in treating cancer. Both types of specialist may work together on cases of malignant chest wall tumours.
Clinical trials are medical research studies that show how scientific discoveries can be applied to patients. Volunteers undergo testing with the objective of clarifying the clinical, pharmacological and / or other pharmaco-dynamic effects, adverse reactions or to study the different changes produced in the body. In order to be able to participate in a trial, clinical trial managers must study the anatomy and physiology of the person to assess their suitability. Once the person is accepted for the study, a contract must be signed which details the possible adverse effects.
Genetic testing is a tool that is used to find out whether a person is carrying a specific altered (mutated) gene that causes a particular medical condition such as a disease.
The different types of genetic testing and their purpose include:
There are different way to test, which collects samples that will be sent to a lab for analysis. These include:
Genetic counselling provides support, information and advice to those who have been referred to a genetic counsellor by their doctor. A healthcare professional will discuss the health condition that runs in the family and how it may be affecting the patient and their family. The counsellor will discuss the risk of a couple passing on an inherited condition to their child and offer support if the patient wants to have another child. The counsellor can also discuss the different types of genetic testing, including the risks and benefits of each.
Hormone therapy (also known as hormonal therapy) refers to any sort of treatment involving the use of hormones, or, conversely, the use of hormone antagonists to limit the effectiveness of hormones already in the body (this is also known as antihormone therapy).
There are a number of applications of hormone therapy. Among the most common are:
Hormones are also used in chemical castration to lower the libido and sexual activity. The “patients” are usually criminals in countries where chemical castration is used, and have usually committed crimes of a sexual nature.
Hormone therapy for cancer often involves the use of steroids, which can cause certain cancers to stop growing, or even kill the cancerous cells. Other treatments may use antihormone therapy to inhibit the production or activity of hormones which may be stimulating cancer growth. It depends largely on the type of cancer. Some common examples include:
HRT is most commonly associated with treating the menopause, but there are actually several varieties:
Hormones may be taken in a number of different ways, depending on the case and/or preference. Pills, patches and suppositories are all common methods.
There is no simple yes or no answer to this question. While different hormone therapies can produce different side effects, the benefits usually outweigh the risks. Early studies, such as the well-known Women’s Health Initiative (WHI) randomised control trial in 2002, suggested that HRT significantly increased the risk of breast cancer in women, but current thinking is that the increased risk is only slight. In fact, some studies indicate that oestrogen therapy has a positive effect on other aspects of the patient, such as memory.
Possible side-effects of testosterone antagonists in prostate cancer treatment include hot flushes, sweating, tiredness, impotence, breast tenderness, weight gain and mood swings.
Possible side-effects of hormone therapy in women include tiredness, digestive problems, e.g. constipation, diarrhoea, nausea, appetite increase or loss, etc., menopausal symptoms, hair thinning, headaches, changes in muscle and bone, weight gain and mood swings.
Side-effects usually subside after a few weeks, or maybe even a few months, but the side-effects that manifest and the time they last depends on the individual case.
Immunotherapy, also called biological therapy, biotherapy or biological response modifying therapy (BRM therapy), is a set of treatment techniques that boost the body’s natural defences-the immune system to fight cancer and certain infections. Some immunotherapy treatments boost the immune system overall, while others try to teach it to attack specific types of cells found in tumours. Treatments include the administration of vaccines, creams, tablets and the use of monoclonal antibodies (these are a type of protein that can attach to cancer cells in the body).
Immunotherapy is used to strengthen the immune system to help it fight cancer and side effects of cancer treatments. It can also be used to combat allergies. Allergy shots, also known as subcutaneous immunotherapy can alter the immune system and prevent the development of new allergies.
Treatment uses substances produced by living organisms or substances made in a laboratory. It can be administered in several ways:
This can depend on a number of factors, including:
Kidney cancer, sometimes referred to as renal cancer, is a type of cancer affecting the kidneys which most commonly occurs in those over the age of 60. It is one of the commonest cancers in the UK. There are different types of kidney cancer:
Kidney cancers are graded on a scale of 1-4, as are many types of cancer. Cancers which are low on the scale grow slowly, while cancers on the higher end of the scale spread more quickly. This grading system helps the doctor decide on treatment and assess how the cancer will behave.
The symptoms of kidney cancer are often difficult to detect at first, and kidney cancer is more often picked up during other routine testing. The main symptoms of kidney cancer are:
The most frequent risk factors that influence the development of kidney cancer are:
Reducing some risk factors can help in the prevention of kidney cancer, such as:
Kidney cancer, if detected early, can be cured. Treatment and outlook of kidney cancer depends on the size of the tumour and how far it has spread in the body.
The cancer cells can also be treated through freezing or heating (cryotherapy, radiofrequency ablation), embolisation (where the blood supply to the tumour is cut off), radiotherapy, or biological therapies such as immunotherapy.
If the cancer is limited to the kidney and is still fairly small, surgery can cure it. If, on the other hand, the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, treatment focusses on controlling it and preventing further spread.
Mesothelioma is a type of cancer most often related to asbestos exposure. it develops in the lining of the outer surface of some organs, most commonly the lungs butt also the stomach, heart or testicles.
Metastasis is a process wherein cancer spreads from one part of the body to the other, affecting one or more organs. This may also be known as ‘secondary’ cancer, and is a late stage, meaning metastatic cancer has a lower possibility of being cured.
Cancer can spread from the primary cancer site to other areas of the body through the lymphatic system or through the bloodstream. Cancer cells spread from one organ to another in this way, and tumours then form in other parts of the body. This does not create a new cancer, but rather is a metastised form of the orginal cancer, e.g breast cancer which spreads to the lung does not become lung cancer, but is metastatic breast cancer.
Metastatic cancer does not always show symptoms. If they are present, the symptoms of metastatic cancer depend on where the cancer has spread to and how large the tumours are. Symptoms may include bone fractures and pain (when the cancer has spread to the bone), headaches, seizures, and dizziness (when the cancer has spread to the brain), being short of breath (spread to the lungs), and jaundice or swelling in the abdomen (spread to the liver).
Once cancer has started spreading, it is difficult to then control it and treat it. Some metastatic cancers can be treated, but most cannot. The mainstay of treatment in cases where the cancer cannot be cured is to slow the growth of the cancer or to reduce or relieve the symptoms caused by it.
Treatment for metastatic cancer depends on the primary cancer form and where the cancer has spread.
The risk of secondary cancer developing depends on many factors, such as the type of cancer and the age the patient develops the cancer. While secondary cancer can develop, it is important to note that the risk is relatively small. It is not yet possible to entirely prevent metastasis.
Cancer is often dealt with by various specialists as different specialties are involved in different areas of the treatment – for example, if surgery is necessary, a surgeon will be involved in treatment. However, the doctor who assesses, diagnoses and treats cancer is an oncologist.
The main aim of palliative care is to help people with a serious condition feel better. Many patients may have a terminal illness, a condition with no treatment available, or serious condition with life-prolonging treatment.
The following treatments are used to treat symptoms and side effects of the disease and its treatment:
Palliative care aims to prevent and alleviate suffering during a serious illness. It provides patients with a better quality of life in their difficult circumstances. The wellbeing sought is for the patient as well as their family.
Some conditions that require this care most often include:
Palliative care can be provided by any healthcare professional: a team of specialists, nutritionists, nurses, psychologists, and more. In many cases, the healthcare professional is specialised in the treatment.
Palliative care may vary according to the condition which is being treated and may include:
The patient, and their loved ones, should be aware of the seriousness of the condition, as well as the prognosis and the treatment options available to them. It is important to trust the medical team to help ensure the best quality of life possible.
Personalised medicine is a medical model that emphasises the importance of tailoring treatment to each individual patient according to their needs and circumstances. While this idea has existed for centuries, modern personalised medicine aims to use all the information available, including genetic analysis of the patient, using technological and scientific advances in genome sequencing.
The philosophy of personalised medicine is that each person’s health is determined by a unique set of factors, including their individual genetic make-up, their lifestyle, and their environment. This means that, as we are all different, a treatment that works on one patient may not work for another with different circumstances.
Because of the inherent differences between each individual, personalised medicine analyses information about a patient’s genome and combines this with other clinical and diagnostic information to allow doctors to identify health risks for that patient, catch diseases early, and find the most effective treatments for that individual.
The traditional “one size fits all” approach of most healthcare systems can fail some patients if they do not respond to a particular treatment due to an unusual genetic, lifestyle, or environmental factor. Even normal differences, such as age, can have a bearing on the efficacy of a certain drug. Personalised medicine represents a move away from this approach. By recognising that each patient’s health is different and that factors such as genetics can mean that different patients respond differently to different treatments, doctors can analyse each patient’s unique set of circumstances to optimise treatment. In theory, this should lead to better outcomes for patients.
Pleural mesothelioma is a rare malignant tumour affecting the pleura, the lining which surrounds each lung and the chest’s internal walls. The main cause of pleural mesothelioma is exposure to asbestos, a mineral which was often used for insulation or roofing. When it is extracted or removed, asbestos releases a fine dust that, if breathed in, can cause serious health damage, such as in case of pleural mesothelioma. This condition may appear many years after exposure to asbestos.
Unfortunately the outlook for mesothelioma tends to be poor, because it doesn't usually cause any obvious symptoms until late on, when tumour cells have already spread over to other organs and tissues.
Symptoms of mesothelioma in the lining of the lungs include:
The doctor will start by looking at your medical history. In order to get an accurate diagnosis, you may require the following tests:
Exposure to asbestos is the main cause of pleural mesothelioma. Other risk factors include:
Treatment depends on what stage the tumour has reached and, more generally, your general state of health. In the modern day, pleural mesothelioma can be treated with surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Pleural mesothelioma is treated by a team general surgeons, thoracic surgeons, oncologists and pulmonologists.
Prostate cancer is the type of cancer that starts in the prostate gland. The prostate is part of the male reproductive system and is an organ that surrounds the urethra, the tube that carries urine out of the body. The prostate is responsible for producing seminal fluid.
Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in men, with 1 in 8 men affected. Every year, 11,000 men die from prostate cancer.
Prostate cancer can be categorised into four stages, indicating how far the cancer has spread:
Prostate cancer often does not present any symptoms at first. The symptoms that occur when the cancer starts to progress include:
If the cancer spreads to the lymph node or pelvic bone, symptoms can include:
The exact cause of prostate cancer is unknown. Your risk of getting prostate cancer depends on:
Prostate cancer diagnosis consists of several stages. At first, the doctor will assess your likelihood of having prostate cancer by taking a urine sample, testing your blood for prostate-specific antigen (PSA), and examining your prostate. If they conclude you may have a high risk of prostate cancer, they will refer you for further tests. This can include:
Treatment options depend on the stage of the cancer and the state of health of the patient.
For slow-growing cancer that is contained within the prostate cancer, the doctor may suggest a wait and see approach, where the prostate is regularly monitored but treatment delayed until necessary.
If the cancer requires treatment but has not spread outside the prostate gland, the most common treatments are:
If the cancer has spread beyond the prostate, the first line of treatment is hormone therapy. If this is not effective, chemotherapy or immunotherapy may be recommended.
A second medical opinion is when you consult with a doctor that is not your regular doctor about a potential diagnosis and/or treatment plan. There is no legal right to a second opinion, however, it is rare for a doctor to refuse.
Patients may consider a second medical opinion if they are facing a new diagnosis or recommended treatment because sometimes this can feel confusing and a second opinion can put their mind at ease.
In addition, there are certain situations where a second medical opinion is sought after:
The aims of obtaining a second medical opinion are:
Possible disadvantages of seeking a second medical opinion include:
You can request a second medical opinion from your GP or consultant, but before doing so it is recommended that you ask for as much clarification and explanation about the initial diagnosis and treatment, before seeking a second opinion.
Obtaining a second medical opinion does not mean that the second doctor will then take over – if that is what the patient decides, then this needs to be agreed formally between doctors and hospitals.
Testicular cancer occurs when cancer cells form in the testes, which are the oval-shaped glands that produce sperm and the hormone testosterone in men between 15 and 35 years old. Testicular cancer can occur in one or both testes, and is more common in those who experience an abnormal testicular development or an undescended testicle.
There are two main types of testicular cancer: seminoma, and non-seminoma, of which there are further sub-groupings.
The symptoms of testicular cancer are:
Certain factors may increase the individual risk of testicular cancer. You are more likely to develop testicular cancer if a family member has had it. Certain conditions such as an undescended testicle also increase the risk.
Testicular cancer more commonly affects men over the age of 54, and Caucasian men. Testicular cancer is much more prevalent in Europe, Canada and the US than in Asia and Africa.
As the exact causes are still unknown, there is no way to prevent testicular cancer. However, it has been shown that orchidopexy, surgery to lower and fix the testicle not descended into the scrotum, can prevent the development of testicular cancer in children with undescended testicles.
This type of cancer has a cure rate of more than 90% if it is localised and treated in time. There are several treatments that are chosen depending on the stage in which the tumour is identified. At an early stage, the tumour generally only affects the testicle, so surgery to remove it is usually sufficient in most cases, although in others, treatment with chemo or radiotherapy may be needed to reduce the risk of it developing further. If the cancer has spread outside the testicle, then generally radiotherapy or chemotherapy is presented as an option. If the cancer returns, then radiotherapy or chemotherapy may again be administered.
e-Consultation is a private messaging and video conference service that allows contact with leading specialists at the time you choose, from any place.
Bladder cancer arises when the bladder experiences an abnormal growth of tissue. Dr Mark Tuthill, a medical oncologist, has spent many years specialising in the treatment of various cancers, including bladder cancer. Within this article, he explains what treatment options you could expect, should you or someone you know be diagnosed with the condition.
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Metastatic or advanced prostate cancer occurs when prostate cancer cells escape from the prostate and spread to other parts of the body. Many patients will be diagnosed after being found to have a high PSA or after presenting with symptoms suggestive of advanced prostate cancer. Dr Mark Tuthill talks about treating metastatic prostate cancer and if there are new treatments on the horizon.
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What happens after you've had a diagnosis of breast cancer can be confusing and frightening. You may be wondering how your cancer specialist decides the next steps in your treatment plan regarding chemotherapy. Dr Mark Tuthill, an experienced medical oncologist explains what treatment options are available.
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As with any treatment procedure, one of the first things that a patient will question is whether there are any side effects to the medication, and if so, what? We've asked consultant medical oncologist Dr Mark Tuthill to explain the side effects of the medications used in immunotherapy for cancer.
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When the body's immune system fails to detect cancer cells, this enables them to grow into a tumour. Medical therapies known as immunotherapy can help the immune system attack cancer that has developed. Read more from medical oncologist Dr Mark Tuthill on how the treatment works exactly.
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For women who have triple negative breast cancer, a new treatment drug has just become available to prescribe to treat the disease alongside chemotherapy. Read more from our expert medical oncologist Dr Mark Tuthill on immunotherapy medication.
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Immunotherapy treatments have revolutionised the treatment of many different cancers from those of the breast, lung, bladder to kidney. We've asked expert medical oncologist Dr Mark Tuthill to explain how cancer develops and how immunotherapy is much better tolerated than chemotherapy as treatment.
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